The 2025 Levels guide to hunger — and how to manage it

Hunger is a natural (and essential) feeling, but it shouldn’t rule your life. Here’s why you might feel hungry all the time and how to manage it with specific nutrients, foods, and habits.

WRITTEN BY

Stephanie Eckelkamp

REVIEWED BY

Rich Joseph, MD

Updated: 04/23/2025|15 min read

Given the soaring popularity of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) agonists like semaglutide (name brands Ozempic and Wegovy), which promote weight loss by strongly suppressing appetite, it’s clear hunger plays a significant role in our ability to regulate weight and overall health.

While this is intuitive, hunger is anything but simple. This sensation is a survival mechanism driven by a complex and finely tuned web of physical, neurological, and hormonal signals, all influenced by what and how much you eat, body fat, physical activity, stress, sleep, and much more. Additionally, although a need for energy (calories) is a primary driver of hunger, not all calories regulate hunger in the same way—specific foods and food combinations have different effects on hunger and fullness sensations depending on factors like macronutrient composition (fat, protein, carbs) and form (solid versus liquids).

This article breaks down the science of physiological hunger—what’s going on within the body that drives this sensation, how different macronutrients and levels of food processing impact hunger and fullness, and the lifestyle factors and habits that can either promote or quell hunger. (This is related to but unique from appetite, which is a more psychological craving for food.)

What controls hunger and satiety in the body?

The cycle of feeling hungry, which drives you to seek and eat food, followed by feeling satisfied once you’ve eaten (what we call satiety), is a complex sequence of events. It involves the interplay of hormones from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the hypothalamus of the brain, along with the transmission of neural information along the gut-brain axis (from the stomach and intestines to the brain stem via the vagus nerve). Understanding these processes will help you better grasp the mechanisms by which specific nutrients, foods, and habits influence hunger and satiety, which we’ll dive into later.

Factors that increase hunger and drive eating

When the stomach is empty and circulating insulin and blood glucose levels are relatively low, such as during periods of fasting or between meals, X/A-like cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a GI hormone called ghrelin. Your body may also release it in response to food cues (e.g., seeing a picture of food or walking by your coworker’s lunch). Ghrelin is often called the “hunger hormone” and is considered orexigenic, meaning it stimulates appetite. It gets you to eat in a couple of ways:

1. Within the stomach, ghrelin helps stimulate the secretion of stomach acid, which can be irritating in the absence of food and contribute to those classic, burning hunger pangs.
2. Ghrelin also enters blood circulation and eventually crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB)—a protective layer of cells lining the brain’s blood vessels that allows only essential substances through—and enters the brain at part of the hypothalamus called the infundibular nucleus (or the arcuate nucleus). Here, ghrelin drives the secretion of neuropeptide hormones AgRP and NPY that cause you to feel hungry and seek out food.
3. At the same time, ghrelin inhibits satiety-promoting pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons.

Two more orexigenic neuropeptide hormones that stimulate appetite, particularly for highly palatable foods, are orexin (OX) and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), which are secreted by neurons in the lateral hypothalamus.

Research on animals suggests that OX neurons are activated primarily during periods of fasting and in anticipation of eating palatable food, but their activity tends to diminish once you’re eating. So they appear to drive food seeking and motivation to obtain palatable foods. On the other hand, MCH neurons are activated after you begin eating palatable food, so they’re thought to reinforce the continued consumption of calorically dense foods. As such, OX and MCH may partly explain why we tend to seek out and overconsume highly pleasurable foods like pizza, while we don’t have the same drive to keep eating something like broccoli.

OX and MCH hormones exert their effects, in part, by stimulating AgRP and NPY neurons. They also appear to interact with the “feel-good” neurotransmitter dopamine in opposing ways to drive palatable food intake: A rise in OX increases dopamine release, which makes sense, as dopamine plays a key role in motivation and food-seeking behavior. But the subsequent release of MCH inhibits dopamine release. This may seem counterintuitive, but some research suggests that when dopamine levels drop, this triggers anhedonia, or a blunting of pleasure, that prompts us to eat even more of these highly palatable foods in an attempt to restore dopamine levels.

Lastly, insulin-like peptide 5 (INSL5) has also been identified as an appetite-stimulating GI hormone, making it the only other orexigenic GI hormone besides ghrelin. Less is known about INSL5, but animal research has found that it’s secreted by enteroendocrine cells (EECs) called L-cells lining the colon in response to periods of fasting. Levels then fall upon eating. It may also play a role in glucose homeostasis, promoting the release of glucose by the liver during fasting.

Factors that promote fullness and help you stop eating

As eating begins, ghrelin levels fall, and a key anorexigenic (appetite-suppressing) hormone, leptin, comes into play. Often referred to as the “satiety hormone,” leptin interacts with neurons in the same areas of the hypothalamus as ghrelin, but with opposite effects. It decreases the activity of neurons that promote hunger, food seeking, and consumption of normal and palatable foods (AgRP, NPY, OX, and MCH neurons), while activating POMC neurons. These release the satiety-promoting neuropeptide hormone POMC, which helps decrease appetite.

Leptin works on two levels: It helps regulate overall appetite and metabolic rate based on your body’s long-term energy needs, and it can help regulate how much you eat during a meal. Here’s how:

1. Leptin is primarily secreted by fat cells, or adipocytes, on a relatively constant basis. This means that someone with more body fat generally has higher circulating levels of leptin, which helps downregulate appetite and signal to the body that it doesn’t need quite as much fuel (food) to meet its needs. On the other hand, someone with less body fat has lower circulating leptin, which amplifies hunger to help drive greater food intake.
2. Leptin is also secreted shortly after eating by chief cells in the stomach lining. The post-meal rise in leptin and drop in ghrelin—coupled with baseline leptin levels from fat tissue stores—helps promote feelings of fullness after you’ve had enough to eat. This happens through leptin’s interactions with neurons in the hypothalamus, as discussed above.

(Note that although people with obesity are much more likely to have very high leptin levels, this doesn’t mean they easily feel full and satisfied. Instead, chronically elevated leptin can lead to leptin resistance, when neurons become less responsive to leptin, and increase hunger. Chronic inflammation and elevated triglyceride levels may also lead to leptin resistance. The mechanism is similar to the more familiar insulin resistance, in which cells become less responsive to insulin’s effects.)

Shortly after eating, the body also releases insulin to control blood glucose levels. Research suggests this rise in insulin may also activate POMC neurons that promote fullness while inhibiting NPY hunger neurons. Additionally, as food fills your stomach, sensory neurons in the stomach wall called gastric stretch receptors detect the stretching of the stomach and send neural impulses via the vagus nerve to the brain stem that reduce appetite and initiate the release of the stomach contents into the small intestines. (The hypothalamus and the brain stem are constantly communicating and integrating their signals to regulate overall hunger and food intake.) These gastric stretch receptors respond to volume, not nutrients, so things like big portions of low-calorie soups and salads can curb appetite, at least in the short term.

Once partially digested food from the stomach begins to enter the small intestine, several types of enteroendocrine cells (EECs) lining the intestinal wall start sensing what nutrients are present. This, in turn, initiates the secretion of different satiety-promoting EEC hormones, or gut hormones, including cholecystokinin (CCK), peptide YY (PYY), and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). These hormones can act locally within the gut, enter circulation (and, eventually, the brain), or stimulate the vagus nerve to promote satiety and help curb further food intake.

• CCK is released by I-cells in the small intestines, particularly in response to protein and fat. Levels gradually increase within the 30 minutes following a meal and can remain elevated for several hours. CCK acts within the gut to help you feel full, partly by slowing gastric emptying, meaning that food stays in your stomach longer. (Slower gastric emptying is associated with lower caloric intake and greater satiety, while faster gastric emptying is known to increase hunger.) CCK also sends signals via the vagus nerve to the brain stem that decrease hunger, and it enters the hypothalamus, where it inhibits the hunger-inducing neuropeptide hormone NPY.
• PYY is released by L-cells in the small and large intestines, with levels peaking one to two hours after a meal. Some research suggests that PYY release is greater in response to high-fat meals than high-carbohydrate meals in healthy people. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut bacteria also trigger PYY secretion. PYY promotes satiety by slowing gastric emptying and intestinal transit, inhibiting hunger-promoting NPY neurons, and stimulating satiety-promoting POMC neurons in the hypothalamus.
• GLP-1 is co-secreted with PYY by L-cells in the small and large intestines in response to nutrients in the intestines (particularly carbs, fat, protein, and even short-chain fatty acids produced by gut bacteria). Levels of GLP-1 peak around 10 to 15 minutes after eating and again 30 to 60 minutes after eating, rising two- to four-fold from fasting levels. GLP-1 is an incretin hormone, meaning it increases insulin secretion in response to eating, thereby helping control blood glucose levels. GLP-1 helps keep you full by slowing gastric emptying and intestinal transit and sending signals via the vagus nerve to the brain stem that decrease hunger. Some research suggests GLP-1 and PYY may also help prevent overeating by suppressing the brain’s responsiveness to environmental food cues (such as appealing pictures or ads), which might otherwise promote eating even without metabolic requirements.

(Interestingly, people with obesity tend to produce less PYY and GLP-1 in response to eating. This, combined with the fact that they’re also more likely to have leptin resistance, may contribute to overeating and difficulty losing weight.)

GLP-1 agonist weight-loss drugs such as Wegovy and Ozempic are meant to mimic the action of natural GLP-1 to control appetite, but to a much greater extent. While eating typically elevates GLP-1 levels up to four-fold from baseline (or maybe a bit more, depending on the meal), these medications can mimic the effect of a thousand-fold GLP-1 increase, as discussed by Zachary Knight, PhD, on a recent episode of the Huberman Lab podcast. Such a strong effect can be effective for appetite suppression and weight loss, but it’s also a reason these drugs can cause unpleasant GI side effects, such as nausea and vomiting. Given their potency, these drugs are not recommended when only mild weight loss is needed.

How do different nutrients and foods affect hunger?

Now that we know the hormones that promote satiety seem to respond to different nutrients, can we use this information to optimize our food choices? Let’s examine the impact of specific nutrients and food types on hunger.

Carbohydrates

Fiber-rich carbohydrates can be a great addition to meals, particularly when paired with protein and fat. However, eating “naked carbs” (ones not paired with these blood sugar-stabilizing nutrients) or carbohydrates in the form of refined grains or added sugars could potentially increase hunger and overeating, particularly if they spike your blood sugar.

In a 2021 study of more than 1,000 people wearing continuous glucose monitors (CGMs), researchers analyzed how glucose response to meals affected people’s hunger two to three hours later and what they ate. They found that when someone’s blood sugar spiked and was followed by a blood sugar dip or crash (when blood glucose falls below pre-meal levels), this dip predicted how hungry they would be, how long until they would eat again, and how much they ate. The bigger the dip, the hungrier they were, the sooner they ate, and the more they ate. As expected, meals that caused the greatest blood glucose rise led to the greatest blood glucose dips (yet another reason to prioritize low-glycemic, blood sugar-friendly foods and pair your carbs with foods and habits that can blunt a spike). The mechanism was not determined, but one hypothesis is that when the brain senses that it lacks sufficient fuel (due to a blood glucose dip), it sends out signals that drive you to eat more. This may be partly due to a rise in the hunger hormone ghrelin: As we learned, low blood glucose promotes the secretion of ghrelin, which stimulates appetite and food intake.

Additionally, a small 2019 study of 20 people on a short-term, carbohydrate-restricted diet (14 percent carbohydrate, 28 percent protein, 58 percent fat) found that people’s cravings for sweets decreased. These benefits were strongest among people with the most significant reduction in blood sugar levels.

Sugary foods may also interfere with the normal release of hunger-regulating gut hormones. A 2018 study found that people who ate more added sugars in their diet released less GLP-1 in response to acute glucose ingestion (a sugary drink). They were also more responsive to food cues (appealing pictures of high-calorie foods) in a part of the brain associated with reward called the dorsal striatum. The study authors suspect the reduction in GLP-1 prompted this increased reactivity, which might contribute to overeating. (Remember, GLP-1 promotes satiety.)

Fats

Fat is easy to overeat when it’s a component of highly palatable, processed, and fried foods. (Remember, the neuropeptide hormone MCH reinforces the consumption of highly pleasurable, calorie-dense foods as you’re eating them, which can drive overconsumption.) But dietary fat has also been associated with slower gastric emptying, the release of satiety-promoting gut hormones (CCK, PYY, and GLP-1), and the suppression of ghrelin secretion. And as a component of minimally processed meals, fat may play an essential role in curbing hunger.

Several studies suggest that consuming fat before or with a carbohydrate-containing meal has a satiety-enhancing effect. In a 2006 study, consuming two tablespoons of olive oil 30 minutes before a mashed potato meal slowed gastric emptying, buffered the post-meal rise in glucose and insulin, and increased secretion of GLP-1 compared to consuming an equal amount of water before the potato. Similarly, in a 2012 study, pancakes containing 50 grams of carbohydrate and 202 calories from sunflower oil, olive oil, butter, or medium chain triglycerides (MCT) were all more satiating than control pancakes made with no cooking fat. The enhanced satiety of these fat-containing pancakes may have resulted from their ability to slow gastric emptying and, as a result, lead to a lower post-meal rise in blood sugar (slower gastric emptying slows the absorption of glucose into the bloodstream). The pancakes made without fat led to the fastest gastric emptying and the greatest glycemic response. (Out of all the pancakes, the olive oil pancakes led to the smallest overall glycemic response, but it’s not clear why.)

When fat is consumed with fiber—which naturally occurs in whole and minimally processed plant foods like avocado and seeds—its satiating effects could be further enhanced, according to some research. This may be because fiber plus fat results in prolonged contact of nutrients with the intestines, and, in turn, greater production of the satiety-enhancing gut hormone CCK—though other factors could be at play.

Additionally, a high-fat, low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet may suppress hunger, in part, due to naturally occurring elevations of the ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) (a byproduct of fat breakdown) that occur as the body enters ketosis (a state in which the body is predominantly burning fat instead of glucose). Research suggests that higher concentrations of BHB in the blood are associated with lower circulating levels of the hunger hormone ghrelin. Some studies demonstrate this effect with taking exogenous ketone supplements as well.

It’s somewhat unclear if all fats have the same exact satiating effect. Several human and animal studies suggest that, compared to saturated fats, monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats have a more beneficial impact on hormones like ghrelin, CCK, and PYY, as well as appetite and energy intake—but the results are inconsistent and sometimes contradictory. So, choosing a type of fat based solely on its potential to curb hunger slightly more probably isn’t worth it. Instead, opt for fats from whole foods and minimally processed foods that align with your overall goals, such as nuts, seeds, avocados, fatty fish, and high-quality oils.

Fiber

Both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber help you feel fuller longer for a few reasons. First, fiber-rich foods—particularly vegetables and fruits—are relatively high-volume. They have more bulk for fewer calories, so they help fill up the stomach. This activates gastric stretch receptors that promote feelings of fullness shortly after a meal. But while the effect of increased food volume can be immediately satisfying, it’s relatively short-lived and doesn’t reliably impact what you eat at your next meal.

Additionally, insoluble fiber is bulky and resists digestion, while soluble fiber binds to liquid and forms a viscous gel in the GI tract. Both of these actions help slow down gastric emptying and, in turn, promote feelings of satiety. Delayed gastric emptying also slows glucose absorption into the bloodstream, thereby buffering blood sugar spikes and subsequent dips, which may further help curb hunger. High-fiber meals containing beans have also been shown to significantly increase levels of the satiety-promoting gut hormone CCK compared to low-fiber meals (matched for protein, fat, and total carbohydrates), potentially due to slower intestinal transit, which prolongs the period of CCK release.

Gut bacteria and other microorganisms in the large intestines can also ferment soluble fiber into beneficial compounds called short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including butyrate, propionate, and acetate. These SCFAs have been shown to help stimulate the production of the satiety-promoting gut hormones PYY and GLP-1. And some research suggests that acetate may directly act on appetite-regulating neurons within the hypothalamus to reduce hunger.

While it’s optimal to get your fiber from whole foods to maximize nutrients, supplemental soluble fibers, like psyllium husk, may have benefits too. In a 2016 study, participants who consumed psyllium (either 3.4, 6.8, or 10.2 grams) before breakfast and lunch for three days had decreased hunger, decreased desire to eat, and increased fullness between meals compared to a placebo group—with the two higher doses having more significant effects. Similarly, research from 2023 found that around 11 grams of psyllium husk per day, divided and consumed before meals, can support weight loss, likely due to a combination of caloric reduction from improved satiety and reduced insulin resistance due to better glycemic control.

Levels’ advisors recommend aiming for 50 grams of fiber per day from sources like non-starchy vegetables, seeds, nuts, legumes, low-sugar fruits, and whole grains. Consider a psyllium husk powder supplement if you’re struggling to meet your fiber goals or want a simple way to curb hunger and support healthy blood glucose, cholesterol levels, and digestion.

Protein

Numerous studies have shown that protein is more satiating than an equal amount of calories from carbohydrates or fat. This suggests that increasing the protein content of your meals while scaling back on carbs or fat may reduce hunger.

One mechanism is protein’s impact on hunger-regulating hormones. Several clinical trials have found that, compared to standard-protein diets, high-protein diets lead to a greater rise in post-meal levels of CCK, PYY, and GLP-1, along with a proportional decrease in hunger and an increase in fullness. As mentioned, these hormones delay gastric emptying and increase satiety. Protein also reduces the hunger-promoting hormone ghrelin. Interestingly, while carbohydrates reduce ghrelin the fastest, high-protein meals keep ghrelin low for longer. In one study, ghrelin levels remained significantly reduced for up to three hours following a high-protein meal, compared with only about two hours after a high-carb or high-fat meal. (Note that for all meals, the reduction in ghrelin became significant around 30 minutes after eating, demonstrating that it takes a little time for the full satiating effects of a meal to kick in.)

Some protein researchers have stated that getting roughly 30 grams of protein per meal spread across three to four meals is a good strategy for adults trying to maintain muscle while controlling weight and appetite. In one trial, researchers measured perceived post-meal fullness levels for three different 350-calorie meals, each containing varying protein quantities (15, 20, 25, or 30 grams). They found that the 30-gram meal elicited a larger increase in fullness that was more sustained over two hours. In another study, CCK and GLP-1 increased, and ghrelin decreased most significantly when meals contained at least 35 grams of protein. Keep in mind: There’s no consensus on the ideal amount of protein required per meal to maximize satiety, and for certain people (e.g., athletes, highly active people), more protein will likely be needed to optimally curb hunger and support muscle growth, performance, and overall health.

Some studies have also shown that different supplemental protein types (such as soy, whey, egg, casein, gelatin, and pea protein powders) likely have a similar effect on satiety and subsequent 24-hour food intake. It’s unclear how the satiety of whole food protein sources like meat, fish, or eggs might compare to more highly processed meats and other processed protein products like bars and powders, but, in general, whole and minimally processed proteins provide the healthiest nutrient profile.

Solid foods

Chewing your food—rather than drinking it via a protein shake, smoothie, or other caloric beverage—will typically keep you fuller longer and potentially reduce the amount you eat at your next meal. This has been demonstrated repeatedly, though the exact mechanism is unclear.

In a 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis on the relationship between food texture and satiety, researchers found that solid foods and foods with a higher viscosity (think: thick rather than thin liquids) resulted in greater suppression of appetite, decreased hunger, and reduced food intake. One of the included studies from 2011 compared solid and liquid meals, identically matched for calories and all nutrients. Participants either consumed a solid chicken breast along with water to drink, or a liquified chicken breast with water to drink (the total amount of water was the same between groups). Then, researchers measured appetite, insulin, glucose, and ghrelin over the next three hours. Even though the meals were rated equally palatable and the rate of ingestion was the same, solid meals resulted in greater hunger suppression (20 and 115 minutes after the meal) and lower desire to eat (115 minutes after the meal). Changes in glucose, insulin, and ghrelin levels were the same.

While the mechanism hasn’t been fully established, some researchers speculate that the act of chewing a solid food provides a satiety signal that isn’t triggered to the same extent by liquids. Chewing may also lead to the perception of greater calorie consumption. Additionally, liquids tend to have a faster transit time through the GI tract than solid foods, meaning there’s less time in which nutrients are exposed to various nutrient-sensing enteroendocrine cells in the gut.

Ultra-processed foods

Ultra-processed foods (think: chips, cookies, sugary cereals, store-bought bread, hot dogs, mac and cheese, fries, pizza, soda) have in some studies made up about 60 percent of the calories in the standard American diet, and they’ve been implicated in poor health outcomes like inflammation, insulin resistance, diabetes, and obesity. Recent research shows we’re also much more likely to overeat ultra-processed foods than whole and minimally processed foods, suggesting that something about them may interfere with our normal hunger and satiety cues.

In a landmark 2021 study by researchers at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), 20 participants were confined to a research center for one month. During that time, they were randomized to receive either an ultra-processed or an unprocessed diet for two weeks, followed by the alternate diet for two weeks. These diets were matched for the amount of calories, macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, fat), sugars, and fiber they contained, but participants were allowed to choose how much they ate at each meal.

Participants consumed about 500 calories more per day on the ultra-processed diet. On average, they also gained two pounds on the ultra-processed diet and lost two pounds on the unprocessed diet. These differences occurred despite the meals being rated as about equally pleasant and familiar—suggesting increased intake wasn’t simply due to greater palatability.

While the study wasn’t specifically designed to identify why participants ate more on the ultra-processed diet, there are a few findings and potential mechanisms worth considering.

• Differences in rate of eating: The rate of eating was significantly higher during the ultra-processed diet (about 17 calories per minute more) than the unprocessed diet. The study authors speculate that specific properties of ultra-processed foods (like being softer and easier to chew and swallow) may have led to faster food consumption. This more rapid consumption rate provides shorter periods of sensory exposure to the food, which could blunt the satiating effects and contribute to increased overall energy intake.
• Differences in hunger hormones: Blood levels of various hormones were obtained at the start of the study and on the final day of each diet intervention. The hunger-stimulating hormone ghrelin decreased during the unprocessed diet compared to baseline levels. And the satiety-enhancing gut hormone PYY increased during the unprocessed diet compared to both the ultra-processed diet and baseline, though researchers didn’t speculate on the cause.
• Potential “protein leveraging:” The increased caloric intake during the ultra-processed diet was a result of eating more carbohydrates (280 calories) and fats (230 calories), but not protein—intake of protein was roughly the same. Because of this, the study authors hypothesize that the protein leverage hypothesis could be at play. The basic idea: Because protein is so essential, humans may be programmed to seek out a specific amount of protein in their diet compared to carbohydrates and fat—and if you fall short, your body senses this and drives you to keep eating until you get enough. However, if you’re in a setting where your choices are limited to highly processed foods, many of which are composite in nature (i.e., not easily separable into their different macronutrient components), you may not be able to get enough protein without also consuming excess carbohydrates and fats.

High-volume foods

The research is somewhat mixed on whether high-volume, low-energy-dense foods (those with fewer calories and more water content, such as broths, soups, or meals with lots of non-starchy vegetables like big salads) truly reduce hunger and help regulate food intake.

For example, a 2018 study on overweight and obese women who were part of a weight-loss program found that those who consumed low energy-dense meals for breakfast and lunch had reduced self-reported appetite and motivation to eat. They also consumed fewer calories at an evening meal compared to women who received calorie-matched, high-energy-dense meals. In other words, the bigger, bulkier meals were more filling and helped curb appetite and future food intake better than more condensed meals, despite both having equal calories.

But other research suggests the appetite-suppressing effect of high-volume foods may be pretty fleeting. A 2006 study comparing the satiating impact of small (eight-ounce) versus large (16-ounce) servings of pudding matched for calories and macronutrients found that the larger portion was significantly more satiating just after consumption, but not 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, or 180 minutes later. And another study from 2006 found that consuming a larger serving of tomato soup (20 ounces) was more filling than a smaller serving (10 ounces) with the same number of calories, but this difference wasn’t enough to reduce overall food intake at a meal 30 minutes later. These immediately satiating effects are likely due to gastric stretch receptors in the stomach detecting distension and sending messages to the brain to slow food intake. But, as previously mentioned, this effect is short-lived and only lasts as long as food is in the stomach.

It’s also possible that the extent of the appetite-suppressing effect depends on where this “volume” comes from. Notably, the two studies above that showed no significant improvement in satiety or reduced food intake included processed, liquid foods. (As mentioned above, liquids have a faster transit time through the GI tract, which may negatively impact satiety.) On the other hand, if you’re including high-volume foods that are also a great source of fiber, like leafy greens and other non-starchy vegetables, it’s possible that the appetite-suppressing effect will be greater. Even better, pair those high-volume, fiber-rich foods with a source of protein and fat.

What else can affect hunger levels?

Your diet isn’t the only thing that can prompt another trip to the fridge. Other things that affect hunger include the following.

Exercise

It might seem like working out would make it harder to manage hunger, but that’s not necessarily the case. Though there’s some individual variability, current research suggests that a single bout of moderate-to-vigorous exercise suppresses feelings of hunger and the hunger hormone ghrelin, while elevating appetite-suppressing hormones PYY and GLP-1 (many studies in this area have been done on endurance running or cycling lasting 60-90 minutes or sprint interval-training sessions lasting 30 minutes). Lactate, which is often produced from lactic acid made during exercise, is also a natural appetite suppressant. These hormone changes last only a few hours, but research also suggests that making exercise a regular part of your routine can alter your appetite-control system and lead to increased feelings of fullness after meals.

Stress

People under chronic stress tend to eat more when faced with acutely stressful situations, and they have a preference for hyper-palatable foods high in sugar and fat. While there are many reasons for this, one culprit may be stress-induced elevations in glucocorticoid hormones like cortisol and chronic activation of the HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis). This can interfere with the normal expression of the appetite-regulating neuropeptide hormones NPY, AgRP, and POMC. Elevated cortisol may also enhance dopamine release in areas of the brain associated with food cravings (like the ventral striatum), which could promote overconsumption. Lastly, stress causes a short-term increase in the hunger hormone ghrelin, especially in people with obesity. (Though the mechanisms are unclear, some people may also see appetite diminish due to stress.)

Lack of sleep

Insufficient sleep may rev your appetite due to decreases in the satiety hormone leptin and increases in the hunger hormone ghrelin. Some studies have found that adults sleeping five to six hours per night had leptin levels up to 17 percent lower than what was predicted based on their body fat percentage. Poor sleep is also a chronic stressor and, as such, it may increase hunger due to the mechanisms outlined above.

Medications

Medications that may increase appetite as a side effect include, but aren’t limited to certain:

• Antipsychotics (clozapine, olanzapine, haloperidol)
• Antidepressants (amitriptyline, imipramine, doxepin)
• Anti-seizure medications (valproic acid, gabapentin, pregabalin)
• Antihistamines (Benadryl)
• Corticosteroids (prednisone)
• Hormonal birth control
• Beta-blockers (atenolol, propranolol, metoprolol)
• Diabetes medications (insulin, sulfonylureas, thiazolidinediones).

Dehydration

We’re often told that when we feel hungry, we should have something to drink because we might just be thirsty. But in reality, the body is pretty good at sensing what it needs, and it’s thought that separate systems control thirst and hunger via different brain regions, neurons, and signals from the body, per Zachary Knight, PhD. Some studies show that drinking two cups of water before a meal may modestly decrease calorie intake (about 60 to 74 calories), though not all studies agree. Of course, staying hydrated is still crucial for overall metabolic health, but you’re likely drinking enough if you don’t feel thirsty and your urine is pale yellow.

What are the best ways to control hunger?

Based on the science, here are some key takeaways for managing your hunger that also support overall metabolic health:

• Make the bulk of your diet unprocessed foods rich in fiber, proteins, and unsaturated fats. Aim for 50 grams of fiber per day and about 30 grams of protein per meal, and prioritize nourishing fat sources such as fatty fish, nuts, seeds, avocados, and olive oil.
• Avoid ultra-processed foods whenever possible. These aren’t as satiating as whole and unprocessed food, and they likely promote overeating via multiple mechanisms. These include foods containing refined carbohydrates and added sugars, which can spike and subsequently crash your blood sugar, leading to increased feelings of hunger.
• If you need a full belly to feel satisfied, add volume to your meals with fiber-rich, non-starchy vegetables, and pair them with protein and fat to curb hunger longer.
• If you need to have them on hand for other people in your household, keep highly palatable snacks in a closed cupboard or out of sight. Simply seeing food can increase the secretion of the hunger hormone ghrelin.
• Sipping shakes and smoothies to get a dose of protein and other nutrients when you’re on the go is okay. Just remember that liquid meals aren’t as filling as solids, even when they have the same nutrients. Make the bulk of your meals ones you chew.
• Stay adequately hydrated by sipping water and other fluids throughout the day, but don’t feel compelled to drink large amounts of water right before meals.
• Incorporate exercise into your daily routine. It can help curb in-the-moment hunger and, when done regularly, even increase feelings of fullness after meals.
• Find ways to manage stress. Any habit that brings you joy counts, but a bonus if it also supports metabolic health, like meditation, breathing exercises, and post-meal walks.
• Prioritize sleep, aiming for seven to eight hours per night, and support weight-loss efforts. Avoid late-night meals, limit alcohol, stick to regular bedtime and wake-up times, avoid vigorous exercise in the hour before bed, or try one of these other strategies.

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